How Did The Manifest Destiny Affect The Native Americans

Manifest Destiny, the 19th-century doctrine asserting the United States' divinely ordained right to expand its dominion and spread democracy and capitalism across the North American continent, had a devastating and multifaceted impact on Native Americans. This expansionist ideology, fueled by notions of racial and cultural superiority, resulted in the systematic dispossession, displacement, and decimation of indigenous populations, irrevocably altering their way of life and leaving a legacy of trauma that continues to resonate today.

From the early colonial period onward, European settlers and their descendants harbored a desire for westward expansion, often at the expense of Native American land and sovereignty. However, it was in the 1840s, during the presidency of James K. Polk, that Manifest Destiny gained widespread popularity and became a driving force behind American foreign policy. The belief that the United States was destined to control the entire continent justified aggressive land grabs, military campaigns, and the forced assimilation of Native Americans.

The consequences of Manifest Destiny for Native Americans were profound and far-reaching. These impacts manifested in several key areas:

Land Dispossession and Displacement

The most immediate and tangible impact of Manifest Destiny was the seizure of Native American lands. As settlers pushed westward, they encroached upon territories that had been home to indigenous peoples for centuries. Through treaties, often coerced and unfair, or outright military force, Native Americans were dispossessed of their ancestral lands.

• Treaties as Instruments of Dispossession: The U.S. government frequently used treaties to acquire Native American lands. However, these treaties were often negotiated under duress, with Native American representatives lacking the power to effectively bargain or fully understand the implications of the agreements. Sometimes, treaties were deliberately vague or contained loopholes that allowed the government to later reinterpret them to its advantage. The Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851), for example, was intended to establish peace between the U.S. and several Plains tribes in exchange for their recognition of designated territories. However, the treaty failed to prevent further encroachment by settlers and ultimately led to increased conflict.
• Forced Removal: When treaties failed to achieve the desired results, the U.S. government often resorted to forced removal. The most infamous example of this is the Trail of Tears, the forced relocation of the Cherokee Nation from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to present-day Oklahoma in the 1830s. Thousands of Cherokees died during the journey due to disease, starvation, and exposure. Other tribes, such as the Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and Chickasaw, also experienced forced removal during this period.
• The Homestead Act: The Homestead Act of 1862, which granted 160 acres of public land to settlers who agreed to cultivate it, further accelerated the dispossession of Native American lands. The act encouraged westward expansion by providing free land to settlers, many of whom settled on lands that were traditionally used by Native Americans for hunting, fishing, and agriculture. This influx of settlers led to increased competition for resources and further conflict.

Violence and Warfare

Manifest Destiny led to numerous conflicts between Native Americans and the U.S. government and its citizens. As settlers encroached upon Native American lands, tensions escalated, resulting in violent clashes and full-scale wars.

• The Indian Wars: The period from the mid-19th century to the late 19th century was marked by a series of conflicts known as the Indian Wars. These wars were fought between the U.S. Army and various Native American tribes across the western United States. Some of the most notable conflicts include the Dakota War of 1862, the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864, the Fetterman Massacre of 1866, the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876, and the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890.
• Military Superiority: The U.S. Army possessed superior firepower and resources compared to Native American tribes. This military advantage allowed the U.S. government to suppress Native American resistance and force tribes onto reservations. The use of tactics such as scorched earth policies, which involved destroying villages, crops, and livestock, further weakened Native American communities and their ability to resist.
• Civilian Violence: In addition to conflicts with the U.S. Army, Native Americans also faced violence from civilian settlers. Vigilante groups and militias often targeted Native American communities, leading to massacres and other atrocities. The Sand Creek Massacre, in which Colorado militiamen attacked and killed hundreds of unarmed Cheyenne and Arapaho people, including women and children, is a stark example of this civilian violence.

Cultural Assimilation and Destruction

Beyond land dispossession and violence, Manifest Destiny sought to eradicate Native American cultures and assimilate indigenous peoples into American society. This assimilation policy aimed to destroy traditional Native American ways of life and replace them with European-American values and customs.

• Boarding Schools: One of the primary tools of assimilation was the establishment of boarding schools for Native American children. These schools, often run by religious organizations, forcibly removed children from their families and communities. At the schools, Native American children were forbidden from speaking their native languages, practicing their traditional religions, or wearing their traditional clothing. The goal was to strip them of their cultural identities and indoctrinate them into American society.
• The Dawes Act: The Dawes Act of 1887, also known as the General Allotment Act, was another key piece of legislation aimed at assimilating Native Americans. The act divided up communal tribal lands into individual allotments, which were then distributed to Native American families. The goal was to encourage Native Americans to adopt private land ownership and farming practices, thereby breaking up tribal structures and fostering individualism. However, the act often resulted in Native Americans losing their land to white settlers due to fraud or inability to manage their allotments.
• Suppression of Traditional Practices: The U.S. government also actively suppressed Native American religious practices and cultural traditions. Traditional ceremonies and dances were often banned, and Native American spiritual leaders were persecuted. The goal was to eliminate any vestiges of Native American culture and replace them with Christianity and European-American customs.

Disease and Population Decline

The arrival of European settlers and the implementation of Manifest Destiny brought with it diseases to which Native Americans had no immunity. These diseases, such as smallpox, measles, and cholera, decimated Native American populations.

• Lack of Immunity: Native Americans had no prior exposure to many of the diseases brought by Europeans, and therefore lacked the antibodies to fight them off. As a result, these diseases spread rapidly through Native American communities, causing widespread death and suffering.
• Intentional Spread: In some cases, diseases were intentionally spread to Native American populations. During the Pontiac's Rebellion in 1763, British officers distributed blankets infected with smallpox to Native American tribes, causing a devastating epidemic.
• Population Decline: The impact of disease on Native American populations was catastrophic. It is estimated that the Native American population declined by as much as 90% in the centuries following European contact. This population decline weakened Native American communities and made them more vulnerable to displacement and dispossession.

Long-Term Socioeconomic Impacts

The dispossession, violence, and cultural destruction wrought by Manifest Destiny had long-lasting socioeconomic consequences for Native American communities. These impacts continue to affect Native Americans today.

• Poverty and Unemployment: Native Americans experience disproportionately high rates of poverty and unemployment compared to the general population. This is due in part to the loss of land and resources, as well as the legacy of discrimination and cultural destruction.
• Health Disparities: Native Americans also experience significant health disparities, including higher rates of chronic diseases, substance abuse, and suicide. These disparities are linked to poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and the historical trauma of colonization.
• Loss of Cultural Identity: The forced assimilation policies of the past have had a lasting impact on Native American cultural identity. Many Native Americans have lost their native languages and traditional cultural practices. This loss of cultural identity can lead to feelings of alienation and disconnection from one's heritage.

Resistance and Resilience

Despite the immense challenges they faced, Native Americans did not passively accept the consequences of Manifest Destiny. They actively resisted U.S. expansionism and fought to protect their lands, cultures, and sovereignty.

• Military Resistance: Native American tribes engaged in numerous armed conflicts with the U.S. Army. Warriors such as Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and Geronimo led their people in fierce resistance against U.S. expansion.
• Diplomatic Efforts: Native American leaders also sought to negotiate with the U.S. government and assert their rights through diplomatic means. They sent delegations to Washington D.C. to lobby for fairer treaties and policies.
• Cultural Preservation: Despite the efforts to suppress Native American cultures, many tribes worked to preserve their languages, traditions, and spiritual practices. They passed down their knowledge and customs to future generations, ensuring that their cultures would survive.
• Contemporary Activism: Today, Native Americans continue to advocate for their rights and fight for social justice. They are working to reclaim their lands, revitalize their cultures, and address the socioeconomic disparities that affect their communities. Organizations such as the National Congress of American Indians and the Native American Rights Fund are working to protect Native American sovereignty and promote the well-being of Native American people.

Conclusion

The Manifest Destiny was a period of immense transformation and tragedy for Native Americans. The ideology's belief in American exceptionalism and its divine right to expand across the continent led to the systematic dispossession, displacement, and cultural destruction of indigenous populations. While Manifest Destiny as a formal policy has faded, its legacy continues to shape the relationship between Native Americans and the United States.

The historical trauma inflicted by Manifest Destiny has had long-lasting socioeconomic and health consequences for Native American communities. However, Native Americans have also demonstrated remarkable resilience in the face of adversity. They have fought to protect their lands, preserve their cultures, and advocate for their rights. Today, Native Americans continue to work towards healing, reconciliation, and the realization of their inherent sovereignty.

The story of Manifest Destiny and its impact on Native Americans serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked expansionism and the importance of respecting the rights and cultures of all people. It is a reminder that the pursuit of progress should not come at the expense of justice and human dignity. The challenge for the United States today is to acknowledge the injustices of the past and work towards a future of mutual respect, understanding, and reconciliation with Native American nations. How can we ensure that the mistakes of the past are not repeated and that the rights and cultures of all indigenous peoples are respected and protected?