Who Came Up With The Social Contract

The social contract, a cornerstone of political philosophy, explores the relationship between individuals and their governing authority. It posits that individuals consent, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some freedoms and submit to authority in exchange for protection of their remaining rights and maintenance of social order. But who exactly came up with this influential idea? The answer is complex, as the concept evolved over centuries through the contributions of numerous thinkers.

While the modern formulation of the social contract is most often associated with philosophers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, its roots can be traced back to ancient Greece and beyond. Understanding the historical development of the social contract requires exploring the ideas of these key figures and the contexts in which they wrote. By examining their individual contributions, we can appreciate the richness and complexity of this enduring concept that continues to shape political discourse today.

Early Precursors to the Social Contract

The notion of a social contract, in its nascent form, can be identified in the writings of ancient philosophers. While not explicitly outlining a formal "contract," these early thinkers explored ideas related to the legitimacy of rule, the consent of the governed, and the purpose of political association.

• Plato: In his Republic, Plato explores the concept of justice and the ideal state. While he doesn't present a social contract theory directly, the dialogue touches upon the idea that laws and governments arise from a need for mutual protection and the realization that individuals are better off cooperating than acting solely out of self-interest. Glaucon, one of Socrates' interlocutors, argues that justice is a compromise between doing injustice with impunity and suffering it without recourse. This can be interpreted as a rudimentary form of a social contract, where individuals agree to abide by laws to avoid the worst possible outcomes.
• Aristotle: Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that humans are naturally political animals. He argued that the state exists to promote the good life for its citizens. While he didn't explicitly propose a social contract, his emphasis on the importance of law and the common good suggests an implicit understanding that citizens have obligations to the state in exchange for the benefits of living in a well-ordered society.
• Epicurus: The Epicurean school of thought, founded by Epicurus in ancient Greece, offered a more direct precursor to social contract theory. Epicurus argued that justice is based on mutual agreement, not on natural law or divine authority. He believed that laws and social norms arise from a desire to avoid harm and promote security. In essence, individuals enter into an implicit agreement to refrain from harming each other in exchange for the same guarantee. This concept of reciprocal non-aggression anticipates some key elements of later social contract theories.

Thomas Hobbes and the Leviathan

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) is often considered the first major figure to articulate a comprehensive social contract theory. In his masterpiece, Leviathan (1651), Hobbes argued that human life in a state of nature – without government – would be a "war of all against all," characterized by constant fear, violence, and a lack of morality.

• The State of Nature: Hobbes paints a bleak picture of the state of nature, where individuals are driven by self-preservation and a relentless desire for power. In this condition, there is no morality, no justice, and no security. Life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
• The Social Contract: To escape this miserable state, Hobbes argued that individuals must enter into a social contract, surrendering their rights and freedoms to an absolute sovereign. This sovereign, whether a monarch or an assembly, would have unlimited power to enforce laws and maintain order.
• The Sovereign Power: Hobbes believed that only an absolute sovereign could effectively prevent society from descending back into chaos. He rejected any notion of divided government or limited authority, arguing that such arrangements would inevitably lead to conflict and instability.
• Key Ideas: Hobbes's social contract is characterized by:
  • The transfer of all individual rights to the sovereign (except the right to self-preservation).
  • The establishment of an absolute and indivisible sovereign power.
  • The purpose of the contract being the maintenance of order and security.

John Locke and Natural Rights

John Locke (1632-1704), another influential English philosopher, offered a significantly different perspective on the social contract in his Two Treatises of Government (1689). While Locke agreed with Hobbes that a social contract is necessary to escape the state of nature, he envisioned a very different state of nature and a very different kind of contract.

• The State of Nature: Locke's state of nature is not a state of war, but rather a state of perfect freedom and equality. In this state, individuals possess natural rights, including the right to life, liberty, and property. These rights are inherent and inalienable, meaning they cannot be legitimately taken away by any government.
• The Social Contract: According to Locke, individuals enter into a social contract not to surrender their rights to an absolute sovereign, but to protect their natural rights and to establish a government that can impartially resolve disputes.
• Limited Government: Locke advocated for a limited government, with power divided among different branches and with checks and balances to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. He also emphasized the importance of the rule of law and the protection of individual liberties.
• Right to Revolution: Crucially, Locke argued that if the government violates the social contract by infringing upon the natural rights of the citizens, the people have the right to alter or abolish it and to establish a new government that better protects their rights. This idea of the right to revolution had a profound influence on the American Revolution.
• Key Ideas: Locke's social contract is characterized by:
  • The protection of natural rights (life, liberty, and property).
  • The establishment of a limited government with divided powers.
  • The right of the people to revolt against a tyrannical government.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the General Will

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), a Genevan philosopher, presented a third major formulation of the social contract in his The Social Contract (1762). Rousseau's theory differs from those of Hobbes and Locke in its emphasis on the "general will" and the importance of civic virtue.

• The State of Nature: Rousseau believed that humans in the state of nature are naturally good and compassionate. However, as society develops, individuals become corrupted by inequality and the pursuit of self-interest.
• The Social Contract: Rousseau argued that the social contract is not simply an agreement between individuals and the government, but rather an agreement among all members of society to submit to the "general will."
• The General Will: The general will is not simply the sum of individual wills, but rather the collective will of the people aimed at the common good. Rousseau believed that the general will is always right and that individuals should be forced to obey it, even if it conflicts with their own private interests.
• Popular Sovereignty: Rousseau advocated for popular sovereignty, meaning that political power should reside in the people as a whole. He believed that citizens should participate directly in the legislative process to ensure that the laws reflect the general will.
• Key Ideas: Rousseau's social contract is characterized by:
  • The concept of the "general will" as the basis of political legitimacy.
  • The emphasis on civic virtue and the common good.
  • The advocacy for popular sovereignty and direct democracy.

David Hume and the Critique of the Social Contract

While Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau are the most famous proponents of social contract theory, not all philosophers agreed with the concept. David Hume (1711-1776), a Scottish philosopher, offered a significant critique of the social contract in his Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary.

• Critique of Consent: Hume argued that most people do not explicitly consent to the government under which they live. He pointed out that most governments are established through conquest or usurpation, not through voluntary agreement.
• The Force of Habit: Hume believed that people obey the government primarily out of habit and custom, not out of a rational calculation of self-interest. He argued that the benefits of social order and stability are obvious, and that people are generally content to obey the laws without consciously endorsing a social contract.
• Utility as Justification: Hume suggested that the legitimacy of government rests not on consent, but on its utility. He argued that a government is justified if it promotes the happiness and well-being of its citizens, regardless of whether they have explicitly consented to its rule.

Beyond the Classic Thinkers

While Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Hume represent the most influential figures in the development of social contract theory, many other thinkers have contributed to the debate over the centuries.

• Immanuel Kant: Kant incorporated social contract theory into his philosophy of law and politics. He believed that a just state is one that is based on the idea of a hypothetical social contract, where rational individuals would agree to abide by laws that protect their freedom and autonomy.
• John Rawls: In his A Theory of Justice, Rawls revived social contract theory in the 20th century. He proposed a thought experiment called the "original position," where individuals behind a "veil of ignorance" would choose principles of justice that would govern society. Rawls argued that rational individuals in this position would choose principles that guarantee equal basic liberties and that allow for inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society.

Conclusion

So, who came up with the social contract? As this exploration has shown, there is no single answer. The concept of the social contract evolved over centuries through the contributions of numerous thinkers, each building upon the ideas of their predecessors. From the early precursors in ancient Greece to the modern formulations of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, the social contract has been a central concept in political philosophy, shaping our understanding of the relationship between individuals and the state.

Hobbes emphasized the need for order and security, Locke championed natural rights and limited government, and Rousseau focused on the general will and popular sovereignty. While Hume questioned the very basis of the social contract, his critique further stimulated the debate and forced philosophers to refine their arguments. The legacy of these thinkers continues to resonate today, as we grapple with questions of political legitimacy, individual rights, and the proper role of government in society. How should societies balance the need for order with the preservation of individual liberties? What are the limits of governmental power? These are questions that continue to be debated, informed by the rich and complex history of social contract theory. Ultimately, the enduring relevance of the social contract lies in its ability to provide a framework for thinking about the fundamental principles that should govern our political lives.