Why Did Mao Zedong Undertake The Long March

The Long March, a pivotal event in the history of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), remains shrouded in both myth and historical complexity. While often romanticized as a testament to resilience and revolutionary spirit, the underlying reasons for Mao Zedong and the CCP’s decision to embark on this arduous journey are rooted in a confluence of military setbacks, political maneuvering, and ideological struggles within the Party itself. Understanding the multifaceted reasons behind the Long March provides critical insight into the CCP's survival and its eventual triumph in the Chinese Civil War.

The Long March wasn't a unified event but rather a series of retreats undertaken by various Communist armies from different parts of China, all converging towards the north and west. The primary catalyst for this mass exodus was the relentless military pressure exerted by the Nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) forces under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek.

The Nationalist Encirclement Campaigns

Chiang Kai-shek viewed the Communists as a serious threat to his authority and the stability of the Republic of China. Beginning in the early 1930s, he launched a series of "Encirclement Campaigns" aimed at eradicating the Communist base areas, particularly the Jiangxi Soviet, the largest and most established of these regions. These campaigns employed a strategy of gradually tightening the noose around the Communist territories, cutting off supply lines, and forcing the Red Army into direct confrontations.

• First Four Campaigns: The initial four Encirclement Campaigns (1930-1933) were met with surprising success by the Red Army, then under the military leadership of figures like Zhu De and Mao Zedong. The Communists employed guerilla warfare tactics, luring the Nationalist forces deep into the rugged terrain, ambushing them, and exploiting their weaknesses. Mao's strategy of focusing on rural mobilization and peasant support proved particularly effective.
• The Fifth Encirclement Campaign and the Rise of Otto Braun: However, the fifth Encirclement Campaign (1934) proved to be a turning point. Chiang Kai-shek adopted a new strategy, advised by German military advisors. This involved constructing a network of blockhouses and fortifications to systematically encircle and isolate the Jiangxi Soviet. Critically, the CCP's military strategy had shifted away from Mao's guerilla tactics. The Comintern (Communist International), under the influence of Stalin, had sent Otto Braun (also known as Li De), a German communist, to act as a military advisor. Braun, adhering to orthodox communist military doctrine, advocated for conventional warfare and direct confrontation with the Nationalist forces. This approach proved disastrous. The Red Army suffered heavy losses in a series of ill-conceived battles, and the Jiangxi Soviet was on the verge of collapse.

Internal Power Struggles and the Loss of Mao's Influence

The military setbacks experienced during the Fifth Encirclement Campaign were directly linked to internal power struggles within the CCP. Mao Zedong, who had previously held considerable influence in both military and political affairs, had gradually lost ground to a faction led by figures like Bo Gu and Zhou Enlai, who were more aligned with the Comintern's directives and favored a more centralized, Soviet-style approach to revolution.

• The 28 Bolsheviks: This group, often referred to as the "28 Bolsheviks," were Chinese students who had studied in Moscow and were steeped in orthodox Marxist-Leninist ideology. They gained increasing influence within the Party, advocating for a more rigid and centralized control. Their policies, often divorced from the realities of the Chinese countryside, alienated many within the Party, including Mao.
• The Zunyi Conference: The disastrous military situation forced a reckoning within the CCP. During the Long March, in January 1935, the Party held a crucial meeting in Zunyi, Guizhou province. This conference marked a turning point in the CCP's history. Otto Braun was blamed for the failed military strategy, and Mao Zedong, with the support of key figures like Zhou Enlai and Zhang Wentian, re-emerged as the dominant leader. The Zunyi Conference effectively sidelined the 28 Bolsheviks and cemented Mao's control over the Party's military and political direction.

Strategic Considerations and the Search for a New Base

Beyond the immediate pressure of the Nationalist offensives, the decision to undertake the Long March was also driven by strategic considerations. The Jiangxi Soviet, while initially successful, was ultimately unsustainable in the long run. It was geographically isolated, lacked access to vital resources, and was vulnerable to Nationalist encirclement.

• The Need for a More Secure Base: The CCP leadership recognized the need to establish a new base area that was more defensible, had better access to resources, and was located in a region where the Nationalist government's control was weaker. The northwest of China, particularly the Shaanxi province, emerged as a potential destination. This region was remote, mountainous, and had a history of peasant rebellions, making it a potentially fertile ground for communist revolution.
• Connecting with Other Communist Forces: Furthermore, the Long March was also intended to facilitate contact and coordination with other Communist forces operating in different parts of China. Several smaller Communist base areas existed, and the CCP leadership hoped to unite these forces under a single banner and create a more unified front against the Nationalist government.

The Illusion of a Northern Advance and Propaganda

It is important to note that the stated objective of the Long March, at least initially, was not simply to escape the Nationalist forces. The CCP presented the retreat as a strategic maneuver to advance north and fight the Japanese invaders who had occupied Manchuria in 1931.

• Anti-Japanese Sentiment: This "Northern Advance to Resist Japan" was a powerful propaganda tool. Anti-Japanese sentiment was widespread in China at the time, and the CCP sought to capitalize on this nationalistic fervor to gain popular support and portray themselves as the true patriots defending the nation against foreign aggression.
• Rhetorical Justification: While the CCP undoubtedly opposed Japanese aggression, the primary motivation behind the Long March was survival and the establishment of a new base area. However, the rhetoric of fighting the Japanese provided a convenient justification for the retreat and helped to rally support from those who might otherwise have been skeptical of the Communist cause.

The Brutal Realities of the Long March

The Long March was not the glorious and romanticized adventure often depicted in CCP propaganda. It was a brutal and harrowing ordeal that tested the limits of human endurance.

• Extreme Hardship: The Red Army soldiers faced unimaginable hardships. They traversed treacherous mountain ranges, crossed vast grasslands, and endured extreme weather conditions. Food and supplies were scarce, and disease was rampant.
• Constant Warfare: The Nationalist forces relentlessly pursued the Red Army, engaging them in constant battles and skirmishes. Many soldiers perished from combat, starvation, disease, and exhaustion.
• High Casualties: The exact number of casualties during the Long March is difficult to ascertain, but estimates suggest that only a small fraction of the soldiers who initially embarked on the journey actually reached the final destination in Shaanxi. The First Front Army, for example, started with approximately 86,000 soldiers but arrived with only around 8,000.

The Significance of the Long March

Despite the immense suffering and loss of life, the Long March proved to be a pivotal turning point in the history of the CCP.

• Survival and Regeneration: It allowed the CCP to escape annihilation by the Nationalist forces and to regroup and regenerate in a new base area.
• Consolidation of Mao's Leadership: The Long March, particularly the Zunyi Conference, solidified Mao Zedong's leadership and established him as the undisputed leader of the CCP.
• Propaganda Victory: Despite the hardships, the Long March became a powerful symbol of Communist resilience, determination, and revolutionary spirit. It helped to galvanize support for the CCP among the peasantry and intellectuals.
• Foundation for Future Victory: The establishment of a secure base in Shaanxi provided the CCP with a platform to expand its influence, build its military strength, and ultimately defeat the Nationalist government in the Chinese Civil War.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Long March was undertaken by Mao Zedong and the CCP due to a complex interplay of factors. The relentless Nationalist Encirclement Campaigns, particularly the disastrous Fifth Campaign, forced the Communists to abandon their established base areas. Internal power struggles within the CCP, exacerbated by the influence of the Comintern, led to misguided military strategies and the erosion of Mao's influence. The Long March was also driven by strategic considerations, including the need to establish a more secure base area and to connect with other Communist forces. While the CCP presented the retreat as a patriotic endeavor to fight the Japanese, the primary motivation was survival and the preservation of the Communist revolution. The Long March, despite its immense human cost, proved to be a pivotal event in the CCP's history, allowing them to survive, consolidate Mao's leadership, and ultimately triumph in the Chinese Civil War. The Long March underscores the complex interplay of military pressure, political maneuvering, and ideological struggles that shaped the course of Chinese history. Understanding the reasons behind this epic journey provides critical insight into the CCP's survival and its eventual rise to power. The event remains a powerful symbol, albeit one laden with complexity and historical nuance, in the narrative of the Chinese Communist Revolution. How much of the success was due to strategic planning and how much was simply attributable to incredible luck remains a topic of considerable debate among historians. Regardless, its impact on the future of China is undeniable.