Who Came Up With Popular Sovereignty

Popular sovereignty, the doctrine that the authority of a state and its government are created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives (Rule by the People), is a concept deeply intertwined with the history of democracy. While the specific phrase "popular sovereignty" gained prominence in the mid-19th century, the underlying ideas can be traced back through centuries of philosophical and political thought. Disentangling who "came up with" popular sovereignty is therefore not a straightforward task, as it evolved through contributions from various thinkers, movements, and historical events. This article will explore the historical roots of popular sovereignty, tracing its development and highlighting key figures who significantly shaped its meaning and application.

Early Seeds of Popular Sovereignty

The concept of popular sovereignty didn't spring into existence fully formed. Its roots lie in ancient philosophical and political ideas that questioned the divine right of kings and emphasized the importance of the governed in shaping their own destiny.

• Ancient Greece: While not explicitly using the term, ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle explored the idea of politeia, a form of government where citizens participate in decision-making. Athenian democracy, though limited by modern standards (excluding women, slaves, and foreigners), provided a direct model of citizen participation in governance. The concept of isonomia, equality before the law, also contributed to the idea that citizens should have equal rights and a say in their government.
• Roman Republic: The Roman Republic, with its elected officials and assemblies, further developed the idea of citizen participation. The concept of res publica, meaning "public affair," emphasized that government should serve the interests of the people. While power was often concentrated in the hands of the patrician class, the existence of tribunes representing the plebeians demonstrated a recognition of the need to represent the interests of the common people.
• Medieval Era: The Magna Carta (1215) in England, though primarily focused on limiting the power of the king and protecting the rights of nobles, indirectly contributed to the concept of popular sovereignty. It established the principle that even the monarch was subject to the law, laying the groundwork for future challenges to absolute rule.
• The Renaissance and Reformation: The Renaissance sparked a renewed interest in classical thought, leading to a questioning of traditional authority. The Protestant Reformation, with its emphasis on individual interpretation of the Bible, further challenged established hierarchies and encouraged individual agency.

The Enlightenment and the Rise of Natural Rights

The Enlightenment was a crucial period in the development of popular sovereignty. Enlightenment thinkers articulated the concept of natural rights, arguing that individuals possess inherent rights that cannot be legitimately taken away by any government.

• John Locke: Locke's Two Treatises of Government (1689) is arguably the most influential work in shaping the modern understanding of popular sovereignty. Locke argued that individuals possess natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and that government is instituted to protect these rights. He argued that legitimate government is based on the consent of the governed, and that people have the right to alter or abolish a government that fails to uphold their rights. Locke's ideas profoundly influenced the American and French Revolutions.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Rousseau's The Social Contract (1762) further developed the idea of popular sovereignty. Rousseau argued that sovereignty resides in the general will of the people, and that government should be based on the collective good. He believed in direct democracy, where citizens directly participate in decision-making, rather than representative democracy.
• Montesquieu: Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws (1748) advocated for the separation of powers within government, arguing that dividing power among different branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) would prevent tyranny and protect individual liberties. This concept became a cornerstone of constitutionalism and a key element in ensuring popular sovereignty.

The American and French Revolutions: Putting Popular Sovereignty into Practice

The American and French Revolutions were watershed moments in the history of popular sovereignty. They attempted to translate Enlightenment ideals into concrete political realities, although with varying degrees of success.

• The American Revolution: The American colonists, inspired by Locke's ideas, declared their independence from Great Britain, arguing that the British government had violated their natural rights. The Declaration of Independence, with its famous assertion that all men are created equal and endowed with certain unalienable rights, is a powerful statement of popular sovereignty. The U.S. Constitution, with its emphasis on representative government, separation of powers, and checks and balances, was designed to ensure that government remained accountable to the people.
• The French Revolution: The French Revolution, inspired by Rousseau's ideas, aimed to overthrow the absolute monarchy and establish a republic based on popular sovereignty. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) proclaimed the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. However, the French Revolution was far more radical and violent than the American Revolution, and ultimately failed to establish a stable and lasting republic.

Popular Sovereignty and the Issue of Slavery in the United States

In the United States, the concept of popular sovereignty became particularly contentious in the mid-19th century, as it was applied to the issue of slavery in the territories. The idea was that residents of each territory should decide for themselves whether to allow slavery, rather than having the decision imposed by Congress.

• Lewis Cass: Lewis Cass, a Democratic Senator from Michigan, is often credited with popularizing the term "popular sovereignty" in the context of slavery. In his 1848 "Nicholson Letter," Cass argued that the people of each territory should have the right to decide the issue of slavery for themselves. He believed that Congress should not interfere with the domestic institutions of the territories.
• Stephen Douglas: Stephen Douglas, a Democratic Senator from Illinois, became a leading proponent of popular sovereignty. He believed that it was the fairest and most democratic way to resolve the slavery question. Douglas championed the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which allowed residents of those territories to decide the issue of slavery through popular vote. However, the Act led to violence and chaos in Kansas, as pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces clashed over control of the territory.
• The Limitations of Popular Sovereignty in the Context of Slavery: While popular sovereignty seemed like a democratic solution on the surface, it had serious limitations. It failed to protect the rights of enslaved people, who were denied any voice in the decision-making process. Furthermore, it could lead to the expansion of slavery, as pro-slavery forces could manipulate elections and intimidate opponents. Ultimately, popular sovereignty failed to resolve the slavery question and contributed to the outbreak of the Civil War.

Popular Sovereignty in the 20th and 21st Centuries

Despite its problematic history in the context of slavery, popular sovereignty remains a fundamental principle of democratic government around the world. It is reflected in the emphasis on free and fair elections, the protection of civil liberties, and the rule of law.

• Self-Determination: In the 20th century, the concept of popular sovereignty was closely linked to the principle of self-determination, the right of peoples to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development. This principle was enshrined in the United Nations Charter and played a key role in the decolonization movement.
• Constitutionalism: Modern constitutionalism emphasizes the importance of limiting government power and protecting individual rights. Constitutions are often seen as expressions of popular sovereignty, as they are typically ratified by the people or their elected representatives.
• Challenges to Popular Sovereignty: In the 21st century, popular sovereignty faces new challenges, including the rise of populism, the spread of disinformation, and the erosion of trust in democratic institutions. It is crucial to reaffirm the importance of civic education, critical thinking, and informed participation in the political process to ensure that popular sovereignty remains a meaningful principle.

Conclusion

While it's impossible to pinpoint a single individual who "came up with" popular sovereignty, it's clear that the concept evolved through the contributions of numerous thinkers, movements, and historical events. From the ancient Greeks to the Enlightenment philosophers, from the American and French Revolutions to the struggle against slavery, the idea that government derives its legitimacy from the consent of the governed has been a powerful force for democracy and human rights. Although the application of popular sovereignty has sometimes been flawed and even used to justify injustice, the underlying principle remains a cornerstone of free and just societies. As we navigate the challenges of the 21st century, it is essential to remember the historical roots of popular sovereignty and to work to ensure that it remains a vibrant and meaningful principle for generations to come. How can we ensure that popular sovereignty truly protects the rights of all, especially marginalized groups, in an increasingly complex world? Are there inherent limitations to popular sovereignty that we must acknowledge and address?